Market shifts over the past half decade have hastened investor demands for liquidity, particularly given the oscillating rate environment and global slowdown in IPO activity since 2021’s record-breaking run of exits.

This shift isn’t about demanding daily liquidity from long-term strategies but about structured, predictable access. Wealth platforms, family offices, and even traditional institutions want better rebalancing tools and tactical allocation options. There is a growing demand for vehicles that maintain exposure to illiquid assets while enabling timely, transparent access.

Illiquidity is Evolving – Access Without Compromise

The idea that illiquidity must always be the price of higher returns is being redefined. While private loans, equity stakes and infrastructure remain long-term in nature, the mechanisms for accessing and managing them are becoming far more flexible.

Today’s liquidity toolkit includes:

• Assets being raised in structured finance vehicles for flexible, diversified liquidity.
• Secondary markets, especially in private debt, offering earlier exit opportunities and greater price discovery.
• Fund structures such as evergreen and interval funds, which provide periodic liquidity windows.
• Credit solutions like NAV-based facilities that unlock interim liquidity without asset sales.

According to Allianz Global Investors, the private debt secondaries market is projected to exceed $20 billion annually by 2026.

Structured Solutions: Rated Note Feeders and
Collateralized Fund Obligations

Alongside traditional liquidity tools, Rated Note Feeders (RNFs) and Collateralized Fund Obligations (CFOs) are rapidly becoming differentiators in the private markets landscape. These structures are particularly appealing to regulated investors, insurers, pensions, and others that require rated exposure and favourable regulatory or capital treatment.

RNFs convert private fund interests into rated securities, allowing these investors to allocate through familiar vehicles that are streamlined and balance sheet friendly. The process of rating imposes discipline and transparency, and for some investors can reduce capital charges compared to unrated private fund equity.

CFOs, by contrast, securitize pools of fund stakes and issue tranches of rated notes with varied risk/return profiles. The senior tranches appeal to those prioritizing capital protection, while junior or subordinated tranches offer enhanced return potential.

CFOs allow asset owners to unlock value, rebalance portfolios, or meet distribution needs, all while avoiding involuntary asset sales. This capability is especially relevant when liquidity windows are tight or traditional secondary markets are thin.

In both cases, RNFs and CFOs don’t change the illiquid nature of the underlying assets, but they add optionality, allowing investors to engage in private markets with greater flexibility and layered exposure, and providing managers with structure to deploy and manage capital in more robust, scalable ways.

Private Debt Secondaries

While secondaries have long been a mainstay in private equity, the market for private debt secondaries is just now reaching a meaningful inflection point. Several structural and market-driven factors are accelerating this shift.

A large wave of credit funds, particularly in direct lending, launched after 2015 is now reaching maturity, prompting a natural evolution in how investors think about liquidity options. At the same time, improvements in transparency and access to loan-level data are making secondary pricing and due diligence more robust.

Private debt secondary transactions are taking a variety of forms, including traditional LP stake transfers, securitizations of loan portfolios, and synthetic liquidity solutions such as NAV-based lending. Each of these requires specialized operational infrastructure and introduces new complexities in fund administration.

As this segment continues to grow, fund administrators must be prepared to support more frequent valuations, manage complex data-heavy workflows, and facilitate smooth investor transitions.

Existing Barriers to Entry

Increased structural flexibility hasn’t automatically equated to broader accessibility. While managers can now design vehicles with lower minimums, more frequent liquidity windows, and no hard lockups, regulatory thresholds are simultaneously becoming more stringent.

The SEC’s recent proposal to raise the net worth and income requirements for qualified purchasers underscores this tension, making it technically possible to build more investor-friendly vehicles, but harder for many investors to meet the eligibility criteria.

This creates a growing disconnect between product innovation and actual access. To bridge that gap, managers increasingly need administrators with the distribution infrastructure, advisor relationships, and investor onboarding capabilities to match the right vehicles with the right audience.

Access aside, this evolution is also exposing gaps in legacy fund structures and back-office systems. Many were simply not built to support modern liquidity demands, especially when it comes to dynamic capital flows, multi-layered vehicles, and real-time data needs.

Meeting this moment requires a fundamental transformation in fund operations, underpinned by scalable infrastructure, rigorous governance, and forward-thinking administration.

The Administrator’s Role in Risk and Governance  

As private markets evolve to offer more liquidity, the responsibilities surrounding risk management and governance grow in parallel, particularly for fund administrators. Increased access does not diminish the need for control, in fact, it amplifies it. Fund administrators play a central role in ensuring that new liquidity mechanisms are implemented responsibly and in alignment with the fund’s structure and investor commitments.

This role spans multiple critical functions. On the risk side, administrators are tasked with monitoring collateral quality, conducting stress tests on redemption windows, and helping managers evaluate the operational impact of liquidity provisions.

From a governance standpoint, they ensure that liquidity terms are consistent with fund documentation and investor disclosures, mitigating the risk of misalignment.

Administrators must also stay ahead of an evolving regulatory environment. As bodies like the SEC and ESMA increase scrutiny of liquidity management practices in private funds, fund administrators will be expected to demonstrate preparedness, transparency, and procedural rigor.

In this context, administrators are no longer back-office support; they are strategic partners. Their ability to uphold risk and governance standards will be essential to maintaining fund integrity as the boundaries of illiquidity continue to shift.

Strategic Liquidity: The New Frontier

Liquidity in private markets is no longer a contradiction; it’s a competitive advantage. In asset classes like private debt, innovations in secondary markets and fund structures unlock investor access without sacrificing returns.

The firms that combine structural innovation with operational rigor will define the next phase of growth. For investors and managers alike, administrators are at the core of this transition, enabling the infrastructure, governance, and data frameworks that make next-generation vehicles possible.  

The Reality for Endowment Operations Team

Managing investment operations in an endowment or foundation is a delicate balancing act. Teams are often small, yet they oversee increasingly complex portfolios that now include alternatives alongside public markets, leading to a surge in data, valuation methods, and reporting requirements.

The pressure is relentless. Investment offices and committees demand daily insights into exposures, liquidity, and a multitude of associated information, while boards and donors expect transparency. Auditors require precise reconciliations, all of which must be delivered timely despite the various formats of data received from multiple custodians and investment managers.

For investment operations teams, the challenge lies in managing enterprise-scale complexity often without the required bandwidth. It’s essential to focus on what operations teams need to succeed.

What Ops Leaders Need

At Alter Domus, our strength lies not just in our alternative expertise but in how we integrate that knowledge across the full spectrum of holdings. We help investment teams achieve true total-portfolio visibility—connecting data from private funds, co-investments, and partnerships to the liquid exposures managed elsewhere.

The result is unified, institutional-grade reporting and governance that reflects the full reality of your portfolio. That integrated approach extends to how we collaborate with your existing partners.

Seamless Collaboration with Custodian Banks

We work closely with custodian banks to ensure that data and reporting flow smoothly across both public and private assets. Our systems and workflows are designed to complement custody platforms—enhancing, not duplicating, their capabilities.

For investment teams, this means maintaining established banking relationships while gaining a more complete and connected picture of portfolio performance. The result is a cooperative model that brings together the strengths of both worlds: the custodians’ scale and security with Alter Domus’ deep understanding of private markets.

The Challenge with Non-specialist Solutions

Many of the partners that serve endowments and foundations operate a model that was designed for traditional markets, excelling in equities and bonds but struggling with alternatives. Data silos hinder operations teams from achieving a unified portfolio view, and standardized reporting falls short of delivering the daily insights investment offices need.

Non-specialist solutions often overlook the complexities of private equity, private credit, hedge funds, and real assets. Capital calls, unfunded commitments, and bespoke valuations don’t fit into public market workflows, forcing teams to manually reconcile gaps and adapt templates for boards and auditors. For small endowment teams, these challenges lead to increased workload, risk, and confusion—contrary to the goals of ABOR and IBOR.

Aligning for Clarity and Control

For directors of investment operations, the challenge isn’t just more data — it’s delivering accuracy, timeliness, and transparency with small teams under mounting pressure.

That requires a model where ABOR and IBOR are aligned, reconciled, alternative-aware, and tailored to your governance needs.

In public markets, settlement is standardized — trades close in T+1 or T+2, with systems designed to make the process routine. Private markets are a different story. Settlement is slower, less uniform, and packed with variables across jurisdictions, fund structures, and counterparties. When it’s handled well, no one notices. When it goes wrong, it can quietly drain liquidity, damage trust, and even affect performance.

Settlement isn’t just a back-office detail. It’s a risk management issue — and one that says a lot about whether a manager is truly built to scale.

Why settlement in private markets is so tricky

Unlike public equities or bonds, private market trades don’t follow a single set of rules. Instead, managers have to navigate:

• Non-standard timelines — the “when” of settlement varies with each deal, counterparty, and geography
• Lots of players involved — fund entities, custodians, administrative agents, borrowers, lawyers, and counterparties all touch the process.
• Manual workarounds — too many steps still rely on spreadsheets, which means mistakes are easy to make.

Put simply: settlement can be the weakest link in otherwise sophisticated operations.

The risks of getting settlement wrong

1. Operational Breakdowns

When processes are manual or systems don’t talk to each other, errors creep in — mismatched instructions, trades that never get confirmed, or bookings that don’t match reality. In private markets, these errors don’t always show up right away, which makes them even more painful when they do.

2. Liquidity Strain

If a settlement drags, cash or securities can get tied up for longer than expected. Suddenly, capital calls have to be rushed, distributions delayed, and cash forecasts scrambled. LPs don’t like surprises like that.

3. Counterparty & Credit Risk

The longer a trade sits unsettled, the more exposed a manager is to the counterparty. In some cases, managers may have to over-collateralize or even put their own balance sheet at risk just to keep things moving.

4. Valuation Distortions

Unsettled trades that aren’t booked correctly can skew NAVs and portfolio values. That doesn’t just mess with performance reporting — it can spill into compliance problems if filings end up being wrong.

5. Reputational Damage

LPs now look closely at operations in their due diligence. If they see repeated settlement issues, it sends a signal: this manager isn’t operationally sound. That kind of impression spreads quickly in the investor community.

6. Regulatory & Compliance Exposure

Settlement problems often don’t stay contained. They ripple downstream into reporting, disclosures, and fund mandate compliance. With regulators watching private markets more closely than ever, the margin for error is shrinking.

7. Hidden Costs

Every mishandled or delayed trade comes with costs — from lost delayed compensation to dispute resolution to endless rework. Just as damaging, it eats up team bandwidth that should be focused on value-driving work.

Why this matters more than ever

Private markets are bigger and busier than ever, and expectations are higher too.

• LPs are raising the bar for operational maturity and transparency
• Regulators are watching more closely, with stricter requirements on reporting
• Technology is available that makes manual lapses feel less forgivable.
• In this context, settlement risk isn’t theoretical. It’s real, and it can undermine performance and credibility if ignored.

Turning settlement into a strength

The upside: settlement risk is highly manageable with the right approach. Leading managers are already tackling it by:

• Automating settlement workflows to cut out manual errors.
• Building strong data pipelines so front-, middle-, and back-office teams stay aligned.
• Leaning on specialist administrators who bring proven processes and oversight.
• Treating settlement as part of risk management instead of just a clean-up task after a deal closes.

Handled this way, settlement shifts from being a vulnerability to a proof point of resilience — and a way to strengthen investor trust.

Conclusion: from risk to resilience

In private markets, smooth settlement doesn’t usually make headlines. But when it fails, it causes immediate pain: delayed cash flows, misstated valuations, interest loss, and questions from investors.

Managers who get this right don’t just avoid mistakes. They show they’re operationally mature, ready to scale, and capable of meeting rising investor and regulatory expectations.

Settlement may be behind the scenes, but it’s foundational. And in a market where complexity keeps growing, mastering it is one of the clearest ways to reduce risk — and stand apart for the right reasons.

A Quiet Function with Outsized Impact

In private markets, operational infrastructure often sits in the background — until it fails. Among the most critical, and most overlooked, is the Agency. Far from a clerical role, the agent is the contractual backbone of loan agreements: keeping registers accurate, payments flowing, compliance monitored, and communications clear. Done well, the role is invisible; done poorly, it can cause disputes, delays, and reputational harm that ripple across every stakeholder.

Private Credit: Growth Brings Complexity

Private credit has grown into a core pillar of global finance. The U.S. Federal Reserve estimates the U.S. private credit market at USD 1.34 trillion as of mid-2024, with global totals nearing USD 2 trillion. J.P. Morgan notes it has expanded at roughly 14.5% annually over the past decade, making it one of the fastest-growing corners of alternatives.

This expansion has brought greater complexity. Facilities are now larger, more syndicated, multi-tranche, and frequently cross-border. With this scale, the margin for operational error narrows, and the Agency has become a strategic safeguard for transparency and trust.

The Shifting Demands of Private Markets

Ten years ago, private credit often meant bilateral loans or small club deals. Today, managers are navigating multi-currency, multi-jurisdictional facilities with heavy reporting obligations.

At the same time:

• Investors and regulators expect more: Transparency and timely data are now baseline requirements.
• Amendments and restructurings are common: Higher interest rates are testing borrowers, making flexibility and governance critical.
• Operational resilience is scrutinized: Lenders demand confidence that data, payments, and records are accurate at all times.

The Agency has evolved from administrator to stabilizing force at the center of increasingly complex credit markets.

Getting Agency Services Right

To mitigate risks, managers must view the Agency not as a back-office utility but as a critical partner. The following areas are essential:

1. Independence and Impartiality

An Agency must act for all lenders equally, without bias. Independence ensures trust, especially during contentious votes or restructurings.

2. Accuracy as the Foundation

From payment flows to lender registers, precision is everything. The agent’s records are often the “source of truth” in disputes; they must be beyond reproach.

3. Proactive Compliance and Monitoring

Covenant oversight, reporting obligations, and regulatory checks cannot be reactive. A strong agent anticipates deadlines, flags risks early, and provides confidence that nothing is missed.

4. Event−Ready Expertise

Defaults, amendments, and restructurings are inevitable in today’s markets. The true test of an agent is how they perform under stress: fast, organized, and with continuity for all parties.

5. Technology−Enabled Transparency

In an era where stakeholders expect real-time access to information, portals and digital tools are essential. They transform the agent from a bottleneck into an enabler of transparency.

6. Scale with a Human Touch

Global coverage, certified processes, and scalable platforms matter — but so too does responsiveness. Managers should seek agents who combine infrastructure with service.

What Happens When Agency Fails

The risks of weak agency support are rarely visible until they become unavoidable. Consider the following scenarios:

• Inaccurate registers leading to disputes over who holds voting rights during an amendment.
• Delayed notices causing lenders to miss funding deadlines, damaging borrower relationships.
• Weak default handling resulting in inconsistent lender communication and prolonged restructurings.
• Regulatory missteps such as missed tax reporting or inadequate sanctions screening, creating compliance exposure.

Each of these outcomes not only disrupts individual deals but also undermines confidence in a manager’s operating platform. In a market where credibility is paramount, the stakes are high.

From Administrator to Strategic Partner

The best Agents are those whose presence is barely felt — not because their role is minor, but because they execute it flawlessly. In the fast-evolving world of private markets, where complexity and scrutiny are rising, the importance of getting agency services right cannot be overstated.

For managers, the choice of an Agent is not a back-office detail. It is a strategic decision that underpins trust with lenders, protects reputations, and ensures that operational resilience matches investment ambition.

For directors of investment operations, governance is the foundation of effective portfolio management, accurate data, and risk control. In today’s landscape of rising regulatory demands and complex alternatives, strong governance is also a strategic asset.

Future-proof governance enables teams to move beyond reactive measures, creating resilient systems that enhance accuracy and credibility. This shift allows teams to focus on high-value tasks that drive portfolio success.

Raising Standards with confidence

Operational teams must deliver timely, precise data to boards, auditors, and regulators, facing higher expectations for transparency and risk oversight. For leaders, this is an opportunity to demonstrate that governance is a competitive advantage.

Robust processes foster confidence, reduce rework, and empower investment committees with better decision-making tools. At Alter Domus, we see organizations that strengthen governance not only meet current demands but also confidently explore new strategies and investment opportunities.

What Future-Ready Governance looks like in Practice

Future-proof governance is about strengthening operational infrastructure. For investment operations leaders, it means:

• Resilient systems that maintain accuracy and continuity through staff turnover or market disruption.
• Scalable processes that can handle the growing demands of alternatives – managing capital calls, monitoring liquidity, and tracking performance, etc – without adding headcount
• Integrated reporting that provides a single version of the truth for boards, auditors, and investment committees.
• Independent oversight that validates calculations, reduces operational risk, and enhances credibility with stakeholders.

With these pillars in place, governance supports efficiency and insight rather than slowing things down.

Outsourcing as a governance accelerator

Many endowments and foundations operate with lean teams, making it challenging to invest in the infrastructure required for governance at scale. Outsourcing fund administration provides a solution by reinforcing internal teams rather than replacing them. A strong partner like Alter Domus delivers:

• Independent NAV and reconciliations, creating objectivity and reducing the risk of error.
• Best-practice processes, refined across hundreds of institutional clients and seamlessly integrated into the operating model.
• Technology-enabled transparency, giving operations leaders instant access to dashboards and reports without heavy internal investment.
• Capacity relief, allowing teams to redirect time and talent toward strategic projects rather than manual processing.

In this way, outsourcing becomes a governance accelerator, embedding institutional-quality controls and reporting into organizations with leaner resources.

Tangible benefits for operations teams

When governance is strengthened through the right systems and partners, operations leaders see immediate, positive impacts. Audits proceed with greater speed and efficiency, requiring fewer adjustments and minimizing back-and-forth communication. This streamlining allows teams to concentrate on strategic initiatives rather than administrative burdens.

Board and committee reports become timelier and more insightful, establishing operations as a trusted source of decision-ready intelligence. This evolution enhances the quality of discussions and decisions at the highest levels.

Risk oversight improves, enabling proactive monitoring of exposures, cash flows, and liquidity across complex portfolios, fostering a culture of preparedness. As operational credibility increases so does trust from boards, donors, and external stakeholders. This strengthened relationship, built on transparency and reliability, lays a solid foundation for future collaboration and success, positioning organizations for sustainable growth.

Governance as an enabler of operational excellence

For directors of investment operations, future-proof governance means building a robust infrastructure that navigates today’s complexities while adapting to tomorrow’s demands. It minimizes risk, boosts efficiency, and empowers teams beyond back-office functions.

At Alter Domus, we specialize in helping endowments and foundations achieve this balance. By merging deep expertise in alternatives with advanced technology and independent oversight, we transform governance into a strategic asset. The outcome is a reliable data environment, clear reporting, and investment staff focused on strategy rather than reconciliations. In this context, governance becomes an enabler of operational excellence, key to sustaining efficiency and trust for the future.

Tax compliance in private capital has shifted from a back-office task to a board-level priority. Federal and state filings, 1065 partnership returns, K-1s, FATCA/CRS, and 1099 reporting all converge under strict deadlines — and investor confidence depends on getting them right. For many firms, the question is no longer if they can keep up, but how to do so without overburdening already stretched teams. 

The Weight of Rising Tax Demands 

As private capital funds grow, so do their filing obligations. Teams face an unrelenting tax cycle that requires accuracy, speed, and continuity. Yet many managers struggle with: 

• Rising complexity: Multiple fund structures, investor demands, and cross-jurisdictional reporting.  
• Limited capacity: Lean teams balancing tax alongside other operational responsibilities. 
• Turnover risk: The loss of a single experienced professional can erase institutional knowledge overnight. 

These pressures are magnified by shifting expectations. Regulators continue to expand cross-border requirements, while investors demand greater transparency and faster turnaround. What was once treated as a compliance function has become a visible measure of operational maturity — and firms that fall behind risk eroding investor trust.  

Experience that Scales  

Meeting these challenges requires a model that can handle scale without sacrificing quality. Alter Domus supports: 

• 1,466 funds supported with tax services annually
• 1,200 Federal and State tax returns reviewed annually
• 435 funds supported with dedicated tax return reviews
• 300 funds served with FATCA/CRS filings

These numbers highlight more than just scale — they reflect the way managers are choosing to structure their tax function. Many continue to use a Big 4 firm for preparation, while relying on Alter Domus for reviews, coordination, and data management. This model reduces back-and-forth, ensures continuity year after year, and allows firms to expand without adding internal headcount.  

A Smarter Model for Tax Support  

The most effective models extend beyond outsourcing. They integrate seamlessly with existing tax preparers and in-house processes, acting as an extension of the manager’s team. 

For many firms, the challenge isn’t who prepares the return — it’s the review and coordination around it. Some want to keep a Big 4 firm on preparation but lack the bandwidth or expertise to manage the process. Others have lost in-house tax staff and the knowledge that left with them. 

Alter Domus’ tax review and data coordination services were built to fill this gap — offering fractional expertise that reduces back-and-forth with preparers, ensures continuity, and avoids the overhead of hiring full-time staff. 

Priorities for Managers 

Chief Financial Officers (CFOs) and Chief Operating Officers (COOs) in private capital face three key imperatives: 

• Accuracy: Every return and report is thoroughly reviewed to the highest standard. 
• Efficiency: Faster turnaround times through streamlined coordination with preparers. 
• Compliance: Reliable 1065, FATCA/CRS, and 1099 reporting across jurisdictions. 

Meeting these expectations requires more than capacity — it requires the right partnership. 

A Partner for What Comes Next  

Alter Domus combines deep private capital expertise with the scale and continuity today’s tax environment demands. Our teams don’t replace your preparers — we work alongside them, ensuring reviews are rigorous, data is coordinated, and deadlines are met without disruption. 

By reducing the back-and-forth between administrators, preparers, and internal teams, we free managers to focus on growth while knowing investor expectations will be met. And as reporting requirements continue to tighten, we provide the stability to keep pace without adding internal headcount.  

For private capital managers, tax isn’t slowing down. With Alter Domus, you don’t have to choose between accuracy, efficiency, and scale — you get them all.

For asset managers, audit season is more than a routine compliance exercise—it is a critical period where operational precision, regulatory adherence, and investor transparency are all under the microscope. Even well-run funds can feel pressure during this time: schedules tighten, audit teams request detailed reconciliations, and reporting must be flawless across multiple fund structures and geographies.

For managers working with fund administrators who take a tech-first, low-touch approach, these challenges are magnified. While technology can streamline reporting and data aggregation, it cannot on its own replace proactive, hands-on guidance. Additionally, administrators with low or varying service quality may struggle to scale up or adapt to clients’ changing needs, further complicating the audit process.

The most common stress points exacerbated by a lack of high-touch support include:

• Delayed responses to audit inquiries: Solely tech-driven platforms often prioritize automated workflows over real-time human support. When auditors raise questions—whether about NAV adjustments, intercompany transactions, or fee calculations—delays in response can cascade into last-minute escalations.
• Limited visibility into complex structures: Private funds often have multi-class shares, co-invest vehicles, or feeder funds spanning multiple jurisdictions. Without a dedicated team that understands these nuances, managers risk receiving incomplete or confusing reports, increasing the potential for audit findings or rework.
• Incomplete reconciliations: Automated reporting can handle standard positions and cash flows, but unusual transactions—such as NAV loans, secondary trades, or FX adjustments—require expert judgment. Low-touch models can miss these, leaving managers responsible for manual corrections under tight deadlines.
• Reactive problem-solving: Tech-first providers often wait for issues to surface before addressing them. In contrast, high-touch administrators anticipate anomalies—spotting missing documents, reconciling prior period adjustments, and preparing schedules proactively to minimize disruption.
• Pressure on internal teams: When administrators are unavailable or lack deep operational knowledge, fund teams must shoulder the burden—preparing reconciliations, chasing auditors, and addressing exceptions—diverting time from strategy and investor engagement.

Managing risk

A high-touch fund administration model mitigates these risks. Dedicated teams with deep operational knowledge and experience across fund structures:

• Serve as a single point of contact for audit and regulatory queries, ensuring timely, accurate responses.
• Prepare detailed pre-audit schedules, including cash reconciliations, capital call and distribution statements, and third-party confirmations, as an integral part of our service delivery—without additional costs or requests. This high-touch service is embedded directly into our offering, ensuring that clients receive the support they need without added stress.
• Coordinate across custodians, prime brokers, and portfolio managers to reconcile positions and verify valuations.
• Anticipate unusual or complex items, such as subscription line loans, multi-jurisdictional tax considerations, or NAV adjustments for illiquid assets, reducing last-minute surprises.
• Provide transparent, customizable reporting tailored to the needs of auditors, investors, and internal management.

Ultimately, the difference between a stressful audit and a smoothly managed one comes down to the support model. Technology is essential, but human expertise, proactive guidance, and a relationship-driven approach ensure accuracy, efficiency, and peace of mind.

At Alter Domus, we combine leading-edge operational platforms with white-glove service. By integrating technology with hands-on support, we help asset managers navigate audit season confidently reducing risk, freeing internal resources, and delivering the reliability that investors and auditors demand.